ਪੱਛਮੀ ਦਰਸ਼ਨ · Western Philosophy
ਦੇਕਾਰਤ ਦੀਆਂ ਦਾਰਸ਼ਨਿਕ ਰਚਨਾਵਾਂ
Philosophical Works of Descartes
René Descartes · English translation by John Veitch · 1901
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ਤਤਕਰਾ
Contents · 142Discourse on the Method
Meditations on First Philosophy
Selections from the Principles of Philosophy
- Dedication to Princess Elizabethਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §1: That in order to seek truth, it is necessary once in the course of our life, to doubt, as far as possible, of all things.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §2: That we ought also to consider as false all that is doubtful.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §3: That we ought not meanwhile to make use of doubt in the conduct of life.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §4: Why we may doubt of sensible things.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §5: Why we may also doubt of mathematical demonstrations.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §6: That we possess a free will, by which we can withhold our assent from what is doubtful, and thus avoid error.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §7: That we cannot doubt of our existence while we doubt, and that this is the first knowledge we acquire when we philosophize in order.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §8: That we hence discover the distinction between the mind and the body, or between a thinking and corporeal thing.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §9: What thought (cogitatio) is.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §10: That the notions which are simplest and self-evident, are obscured by logical definitions; and that such are not to be reckoned among the cognitions acquired by study, [but as born with us].ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §11: How we can know our mind more clearly than our body.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §12: How it happens that every one does not come equally to know this.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §13: In what sense the knowledge of other things depends upon the knowledge of God.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §14: That we may validly infer the existence of God from necessary existence being comprised in the concept we have of him.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §15: That necessary existence is not in the same way comprised in the notions which we have of other things, but merely contingent existence.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §16: That prejudices hinder many from clearly knowing the necessity of the existence of God.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §17: That the greater objective (representative) perfection there is in our idea of a thing, the greater also must be the perfection of its cause.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §18: That the existence of God may be again inferred from the above.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §19: That, although we may not comprehend the nature of God, there is yet nothing which we know so clearly as his perfections.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §20: That we are not the cause of ourselves, but that this is God, and consequently that there is a God.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §21: That the duration alone of our life is sufficient to demonstrate the existence of God.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §22: That in knowing the existence of God, in the manner here explained, we likewise know all his attributes, as far as they can be known by the natural light alone.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §23: That God is not corporeal, and does not perceive by means of senses as we do, or will the evil of sin.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §24: That in passing from the knowledge of God to the knowledge of the creatures, it is necessary to remember that our understanding is finite, and the power of God infinite.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §25: That we must believe all that God has revealed, although it may surpass the reach of our faculties.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §26: That it is not needful to enter into disputes22 regarding the infinite, but merely to hold all that in which we can find no limits as indefinite, such as the extension of the world, the divisibility of the parts of matter, the number of the stars, etc.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §27: What difference there is between the indefinite and the infinite.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §28: That we must examine, not the final, but the efficient, causes of created things.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §29: That God is not the cause of our errors.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §30: That consequently all which we clearly perceive is true, and that we are thus delivered from the doubts above proposed.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §31: That our errors are, in respect of God, merely negations, but, in respect of ourselves, privations.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §32: That there are only two modes of thinking in us, viz., the perception of the understanding and the action of the will.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §33: That we never err unless when we judge of something which we do not sufficiently apprehend.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §34: That the will as well as the understanding is required for judging.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §35: That the will is of greater extension than the understanding, and is thus the source of our errors.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §36: That our errors cannot be imputed to God.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §37: That the chief perfection of man is his being able to act freely or by will, and that it is this which renders him worthy of praise or blame.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §38: That error is a defect in our mode of acting, not in our nature; and that the faults of their subjects may be frequently attributed to other masters, but never to God.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §39: That the liberty of our will is self-evident.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §40: That it is likewise certain that God has foreordained all things.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §41: How the freedom of our will may be reconciled with the divine preordination.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §42: How, although we never will to err, it is nevertheless by our will that we do err.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §43: That we shall never err if we give our assent only to what we clearly and distinctly perceive.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §44: That we uniformly judge improperly when we assent to what we do not clearly perceive, although our judgment may chance to be true; and that it is frequently our memory which deceives us by leading us to believe that certain things were formerly sufficiently understood by us.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §45: What constitutes clear and distinct perception.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §46: It is shown, from the example of pain, that a perception may be clear without being distinct, but that it cannot be distinct unless it is clear.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §47: That, to correct the prejudices of our early years, we must consider what is clear in each of our simple28 notions.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §48: That all the objects of our knowledge are to be regarded either (1) as things or the affections of things: or (2) as eternal truths; with the enumeration of things.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §49: That the eternal truths cannot be thus enumerated, but that this is not necessary.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §50: That these truths are clearly perceived, but not equally by all men, on account of prejudices.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §51: What substance is, and that the term is not applicable to God and the creatures in the same sense.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §52: That the term is applicable univocally to the mind and the body, and how substance itself is known.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §53: That of every substance there is one principal attribute, as thinking of the mind, extension of the body.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §54: How we may have clear and distinct notions of the substance which thinks, of that which is corporeal, and of God.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §55: How duration, order, and number may be also distinctly conceived.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §56: What are modes, qualities, attributes.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §57: That some attributes exist in the things to which they are attributed, and others only in our thought; and what duration and time are.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §58: That number and all universals are only modes of thought.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §59: How universals are formed; and what are the five common, viz., genus, species, difference, property, and accident.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §60: Of distinctions; and first of the real.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §61: Of the modal distinction.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §62: Of the distinction of reason (logical distinction).ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §63: How thought and extension may be distinctly known, as constituting, the one the nature of mind, the other that of body.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §64: How these may likewise be distinctly conceived as modes of substance.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §65: How we may likewise know their modes.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §66: How our sensations, affections, and appetites may be clearly known, although we are frequently wrong in our judgments regarding them.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §67: That we are frequently deceived in our judgments regarding pain itself.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §68: How in these things what we clearly conceive is to be distinguished from that in which we may be deceived.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §69: That magnitude, figure, etc., are known far differently from colour, pain, etc.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §70: That we may judge of sensible things in two ways, by the one of which we avoid error, by the other fall into it.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §71: That the chief cause of our errors is to be found in the prejudices of our childhood.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §72: That the second cause of our errors is that we cannot forget these prejudices.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §73: The third cause is, that we become fatigued by attending to those objects which are not present to the senses; and that we are thus accustomed to judge of these not from present perception but from preconceived opinion.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §74: The fourth source of our errors is, that we attach our thoughts to words which do not express them with accuracy.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §75: Summary of what must be observed in order to philosophize correctly.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part I, §76: That we ought to prefer the divine authority to our perception:34 but that, apart from things revealed, we ought to assent to nothing that we do not clearly apprehend.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §1: The grounds on which the existence of material things may be known with certainty.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §2: How we likewise know that the human body is closely connected with the mind.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §3: That the perceptions of the senses do not teach us what is in reality in things, but what is beneficial of hurtful to the composite whole of mind and body.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §4: That the nature of body consists not in weight, hardness, colour and the like, but in extension alone.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §5: That the truth regarding the nature of body is obscured by the opinions respecting rarefaction and a vacuum with which we are preoccupied.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §6: In what way rarefaction takes place.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §7: That rarefaction cannot be intelligibly explained unless in the way here proposed.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §8: That quantity and number differ only in thought (ratione) from that which has quantity and is numbered.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §9: That corporeal substance, when distinguished from its quantity, is confusedly conceived as something incorporeal.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §10: What space or internal place is.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §11: How space is not in reality different from corporeal substance.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §12: How space differs from body in our mode of conceiving it.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §13: What external place is.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §14: Wherein place and space differ.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §15: How external place is rightly taken for the superficies of the surrounding body.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §16: That a vacuum or space in which there is absolutely no body is repugnant to reason.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §17: That a vacuum in the ordinary use of the term does not exclude all body.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §18: How the prejudice of an absolute vacuum is to be corrected.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §19: That this confirms what was said of rarefaction.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §20: That from this the nonexistence of atoms may likewise be demonstrated.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §21: It is thus also demonstrated that the extension of the world is indefinite.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §22: It also follows that the matter of the heavens and earth is the same, and that there cannot be a plurality of worlds.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §23: That all the variety of matter, or the diversity of its forms, depends on motion.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §24: What motion is, taking the term in its common use.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part II, §25: What motion is properly so called.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part III, §1: That we cannot think too highly of the works of God.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part III, §2: That we ought to beware lest, in our presumption, we imagine that the ends which God proposed to himself in the creation of the world are understood by us.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part III, §3: In what sense it may be said that all things were created for the sake of man.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §188: Of what is to be borrowed from disquisitions on animals and man to advance the knowledge of material objects.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §189: What perception (sensus) is, and how we perceive.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §190: Of the distinction of the senses; and, first, of the internal, that is, of the affections of the mind (passions), and the natural appetites.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §191: Of the external senses; and first of touch.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §192: Of taste.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §193: Of smell.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §194: Of hearing.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §195: Of sight.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §196: That the soul perceives only in so far as it is in the brain.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §197: That the nature of the mind is such that from the motion alone of body the various sensations can be excited in it.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §198: That by our senses we know nothing of external objects beyond their figure [or situation], magnitude, and motion.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §199: That there is no phenomenon of nature whose explanation has been omitted in this treatise.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §200: That this treatise contains no principles which are not universally received; and that this philosophy is not new, but of all others the most ancient and common.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §201: That sensible bodies are composed of insensible particles.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §202: That the philosophy of democritus is not less different from ours than from the common.41ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §203: How we may arrive at the knowledge of the figures, [magnitudes], and motions of the insensible particles of bodies.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §204: That, touching the things which our senses do not perceive, it is sufficient to explain how they can be, [and that this is all that aristotle has essayed].ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §205: That nevertheless there is a moral certainty that all the things of this world are such as has been here shown they may be.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §206: That we possess even more than a moral certainty of it.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read
- Part IV, §207: That, however, I submit all my opinions to the authority of the church.ਪੜ੍ਹੋ · read